PUBLICATIONS
Self-Censorship in Communist China: Text Analysis of Sermons from State-Registered Churches
in Politics and Religion (2026)
State-registered religion is puzzling because it can be portrayed as both an opponent and a partner of the state. While registered religions need to be receptive to the rules of the government, they also need to satisfy the needs of their congregants. In light of the Communist Party’s increasing repression, I investigate how this complex positioning between the government and the congregation has influenced the content of sermons in state-approved Protestant churches. Using computational text analysis on sermons from a state-approved Protestant church in China between 2009 to 2021, I analyze the pastors’ degree and composition of self-censorship in their receptiveness to changes over time as well as to politically and religiously sensitive dates. By focusing on sermons shared in state-approved churches, I shed light onto the complex positions in which these Party-registered pastors maneuver. This research also contributes to the broader discussion of civil rights and state-society relations in the context of a strong authoritarian state.
Lee, Sarah. (2026) “Self-Censorship in Communist China: Text Analysis of Sermons from State-Registered Churches,” Politics and Religion, 19(2), 234-261. https://doi.org/10.1017/S1755048326100315
Between Agent and Governor: Local Officials’ Selective Implementation of Religious Policies in China
in Local Government Studies (2026)
Under the ‘decentralized’ or ‘fragmented’ authoritarian governing structure, China’s local officials have long enjoyed leeway in implementing central policies in their areas of jurisdiction. Specifically in the religious policy realm, local officials have been selective in how and upon whom to implement repressive policies. How do we explain the local officials’ selective implementation of religious policies? I argue that officials’ selective repression varies with Party priorities and local relationships. Specifically, the centre’s priorities communicated to local officials determine the officials’ style of repression and combined with the officials’ view of the church then determine the target of repression. The applicability of the explanation is borne out through 120 interviews with Chinese religious leaders and officials. The research reveals that the ways in which religious policies have been and are currently being, implemented at the local level have important implications for Chinese domestic policymaking as well as the society at large.
Lee, Sarah. (2026). “Between Agent and Governor: Local Officials’ Selective Implementation of Religious Policies in China,” Local Government Studies, 52(4), 711–735. https://doi.org/10.1080/03003930.2026.2633724
Adapting in Difficult Circumstances: Protestant Pastors and the Xi Jinping Effect
with Kevin O’Brien, in The Journal of Contemporary China (2021)
To understand the consequences of Xi Jinping’s rise, one must look down as well as up. Even in the face of increased repression, people on the ground have a say over how it unfolds, and their accommodations affect the shape it takes. Many pastors in China are adapting to harsher policies and new ideological narratives by striving to lessen the threat Protestantism is perceived to pose. They are seeking to reduce 1) ideological competition, by not preaching about politics, dissociating themselves from dissidents, and expressing support for the China Dream, 2) security concerns, by striving to become financially self-sufficient, cutting off ties to foreign missionaries and calling for the creation of a truly Chinese church, and 3) collective action fears, by dividing congregations, avoiding networking, and viewing the small church model as part of God’s plan. Out of necessity and sometimes belief, they are finding ways to pursue God’s work within Xi’s strictures. In the course of adjusting Protestant practice and incorporating the China Dream and Sinicization of Christianity into their faith, they are aiming to show that they and their congregations can live with and are being steeled by repression.
Lee, Sarah and Kevin J. O’Brien. (2021) “Adapting in Difficult Circumstances: Protestant Pastors and the Xi Jinping Effect,” The Journal of Contemporary China, https://doi.org/10.1080/10670564.2021.1893556
BOOK MANUSCRIPT
Serving Two Gods: Explaining Selective Religious Repression in China
Under Contract with Oxford University Press
Why do authoritarian countries selectively repress religion? In a country like China which has the knowledge and the tools to control society, why does the government repress some Protestant churches while allowing others to operate freely? Serving Two Gods offers an inclusive, multi-level explanation of selective repression in China. It argues that actors at different levels of society—the central government, local officials, and pastors—are each stuck in dilemmas that explain a part of selective repression. Despite complex considerations and constraints, actors have more agency and power to influence repression beyond what has been allotted them in conventional understandings.
Based on fieldwork in 15 Chinese cities, Serving Two Gods draws on insights from over 150 interviews with repressed individuals, academics, and officials in China, supplemented with text analysis and machine learning tools. The book reveals why the government sometimes chooses to prioritize religious control despite international scrutiny, why local officials sometimes implement repressive policies despite friendly relations with churches, and why Protestant pastors sometimes engage in risky behavior despite the likelihood of repression. The book explores one of the most politically sensitive and timely topics in China to shed light on national priorities, local policy implementation, and the variety of beliefs and behaviors of the people on the ground.
WORKING PAPERS
Friend or Foe? An Analysis of China’s Deportation of South Korean Missionaries
with Myunghee Lee.
In Communist China, South Korean missionaries have been one of the main actors in leading the rapid growth of Christianity in the country. Despite their sizable contributions to earlier development in China, Korean missionaries have maintained an ambivalent relationship with the Chinese Communist Party (CCP). Moreover, the CCP’s strict control over the growth of Christianity has been manifested through increasing deportations and visa denials of foreign missionaries. What are the specific periods in which, and the patterns by which, the CCP has deported substantial numbers of South Korean missionaries, and what explains this variation in the CCP’s treatment of these missionaries? Based on an original set of interviews with Korean missionaries and missionary organizations, we analyze this rocky relationship between South Korean missionaries and the Chinese government by investigating the periods and patterns of concentrated deportation, and the circumstances that explain such government decisions in these specific periods. We find that the patterns of deportation change through a policy shift in 2018, and that this policy shift is explained by considering the cost-benefit calculations of local and central governments. This article reveals a novel perspective on China’s objectives in managing religion and foreign policy. In addition, this research carries significant implications not only for the future of religion in China, but also for the interstate relations between China, South Korea, and other relevant countries.
Clash of Cultures: Religion and Foreign Influence in the Era of Globalization
How does religion, especially foreign religion, influence Chinese citizens’ openness towards foreigners and foreign cultures? I study how messages of different religious content and country origins influence people’s perception of foreign influence through a 3×3 randomized survey experiment. Based on responses from 900 Chinese participants online, I find that religious messages and foreign messages specifically of Western origin each have a significantly negative effect on the participants’ openness to foreign influence. The study finds support for the idea that brief exposure to religious or foreign messages may reduce people’s openness to foreign influence and reinforce people’s predispositions to religion but also raise perceived dangers of foreign religious doctrines, at least at a surface level. This suggests that governments may need to reassess the potential for threat present in religious activities, while religious groups may need to devise alternative strategies of spreading their influence. These findings not only evaluate the role of, and the perceived threat in, religion especially in authoritarian settings but also explore the influence of religion amidst globalizing societies more generally.
